THE ENGLISH CIVIL WARS
Origins, events and legacy
The English Civil Wars were a devastating series of conflicts fought in the middle of the 17th century. They centred around a titanic struggle for power between King Charles I and Parliament, with battle lines drawn over deep-seated and complex divisions in politics, religion and economic policy. Families and communities at all levels of society were drawn into the conflict, and many suffered great losses.
At the heart of the upheaval was a radical challenge to the absolute power of the monarch – one which resulted in the only ever execution of a British monarch and the sole period of Republican rule in British history. The wars forever altered the relationship between monarch and Parliament, stirring questions of power and democracy that led to the long, slow rise of Parliament as the main instrument of power in the land.
We focus here on the three wars fought in England between those loyal to Charles I and those supporting Parliament, in 1642–6, 1648 and 1649–51. But the English Civil Wars were part of a wider conflict that also involved Wales, Scotland and Ireland, and known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish soldiers fought in all the conflicts.
Read on to explore the fractious political landscape of the early 17th century and follow the descent into war, the conflicts themselves, and their aftermath.
ORIGINS
A divided land
What caused the wars?
When Charles I ascended the throne in 1625, the British Isles were riven with several religious, political and social divisions that had been growing since the late Tudor period. Within four years of Charles’s coronation, these had manifested into deep disagreements between king and Parliament.
But war was not inevitable. A political settlement proved elusive partly because of deeply held, opposing views on all sides, and the situation was compounded by a few key personalities, including Charles I as well as some MPs, who simply refused to compromise or sacrifice any of their own principles.
There was no single cause of the wars, but we can identify three main sources of discontent that emerged in the early years of Charles I’s reign.
Politics and power
Charles believed in the ‘Divine Right of Kings’ – that monarchs were appointed by God, and that he could govern his kingdoms personally, taking advice from a Privy Council that he appointed. Charles expected MPs to do as he commanded. However, Parliament had already developed a role in government, with powers to raise taxes, to make law and to allocate money for the king’s use. Charles’s arbitrary use of power was therefore a source of anger and frustration for MPs and others who had ideas for a more inclusive government.
John Pym, pictured here in about 1640, was one of Charles I’s fiercest critics in Parliament (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
John Pym, pictured here in about 1640, was one of Charles I’s fiercest critics in Parliament (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
Religion
Matters of politics were deeply entangled with religion. The Church of England was Protestant but there were many nonconformist sects – including Presbyterians and Puritans – who believed that worship should be plain and congregational. Many still followed the old faith – Catholicism – and were considered as dangerous people who wanted to bring back ‘Popery’ and subjugation to Rome. There was a perception among several Protestant sects, especially Puritans, that the king favoured Catholicism, or at least wanted to tolerate it. This concern was further fuelled by Charles’s marriage to a Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria of France, and his promotion of a ceremonial ‘high church’ in the Church of England.
A woodcut illustration, dating to about 1640, promoting Protestant worship, as represented by the plain-clothed man ‘Of God’ on the left. The more ornately dressed figures hold books labelled 'sermons' and ‘superstitions’, representing mistrust of Catholic-style worship (© Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
A woodcut illustration, dating to about 1640, promoting Protestant worship, as represented by the plain-clothed man ‘Of God’ on the left. The more ornately dressed figures hold books labelled 'sermons' and ‘superstitions’, representing mistrust of Catholic-style worship (© Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
Economic policy
Economic factors also played a part, with arbitrary and heavy taxes levied by the king being a burden on many people. In the early years of Charles’s reign, Parliament was particularly enraged by the king’s conduct of the war with Spain (1625–9) that ended in costly and humiliating failure. In 1626, MPs refused to vote more money for the war, so the king resorted to desperate and unpopular measures, raising money through forced loans, with imprisonment for refusal.
In 1628, Parliament produced the Petition of Right, a list of demands to prevent the king’s misuse of law and taxation. The king, needing money to be granted by Parliament, gave in. However, he dismissed Parliament in 1629 and did not recall it for 11 years – a period that became known as the Personal Rule.
Charles I in 1629, four years after his coronation (© Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images)
Charles I in 1629, four years after his coronation (© Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images)
Charles I married Henrietta Maria of France in 1625, prompting speculation about his leanings towards the Catholic Church (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
Charles I married Henrietta Maria of France in 1625, prompting speculation about his leanings towards the Catholic Church (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 until 1645. Laud instigated a 'High Church', which was perceived by many as a dangerous return to Catholicism (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 until 1645. Laud instigated a 'High Church', which was perceived by many as a dangerous return to Catholicism (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
‘The Defence of Cadiz against the English’ by Francisco de Zurbarán (© Museo del Prado)
‘The Defence of Cadiz against the English’ by Francisco de Zurbarán (© Museo del Prado)
THE SLIDE TO WAR
1629–42
Charles I’s introduction of the Book of Common Prayer in Scotland in 1637 prompted widespread rioting
Charles I’s introduction of the Book of Common Prayer in Scotland in 1637 prompted widespread rioting
Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, was one of the most influential leaders of the Covenanters movement in Scotland (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, was one of the most influential leaders of the Covenanters movement in Scotland (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
1629–40: Mounting discontent in England and war in Scotland
These years, though peaceful, fostered growing discontent with the king. Charles encountered hostility in Scotland in 1637, when he supported the introduction of a Book of Common Prayer, intending to establish English-style religious practice there. This was inflammatory in a country that was predominantly Presbyterian, practising plain congregational worship. It inspired political opposition and the creation of the National Covenant, a document that defined the principles of religion in Scotland. All who signed it, known as Covenanters, were to be a major influence in the upheaval of the civil wars to come.
A 1642 engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar depicting Scottish worshippers rebelling against a reading from the new prayer book introduced by Charles I (© The Trustees of the British Museum)
A 1642 engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar depicting Scottish worshippers rebelling against a reading from the new prayer book introduced by Charles I (© The Trustees of the British Museum)
Attempting to enforce his will, Charles I led an army to Scotland in 1639 and fought the inconclusive First Bishops’ War. His need to finance another war, for the same purpose, brought an end to the Personal Rule in April 1640, when he recalled Parliament.
MPs were united and hostile, seeking an end to the policies of the Personal Rule before they would vote any money for the king. After only three weeks, in frustration and failure, Charles dismissed what became known as the Short Parliament.
The Scots crossing the river Tyne at Newburn Ford during the Second Bishops’ War (© The British Library Board/Digital Store 9504.h.2)
The Scots crossing the river Tyne at Newburn Ford during the Second Bishops’ War (© The British Library Board/Digital Store 9504.h.2)
In the summer of 1640, the king fought the Second Bishops’ War. It ended in defeat and the occupation of northern England by the Scottish army, and Charles had to recall Parliament for money to settle the conflict.
This sitting, which became known as the Long Parliament, remained in session until 1660, a period that involved some of the most calamitous events in English history.
A woodcut print of the House of Commons in session in about 1640 (© GraphicaArtis/Getty Images)
A woodcut print of the House of Commons in session in about 1640 (© GraphicaArtis/Getty Images)
A 1640s line etching depicting the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, pleading for tolerance. He was imprisoned in 1641 and executed in 1645 (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
A 1640s line etching depicting the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, pleading for tolerance. He was imprisoned in 1641 and executed in 1645 (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
The trial of the Earl of Strafford in Westminster Hall, 1640, in an engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar
The trial of the Earl of Strafford in Westminster Hall, 1640, in an engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar
The title page of the Grand Remonstrance – a list of grievances presented to the king by Parliament in 1641 (© Chronicle of World History/Alamy Stock Photo)
The title page of the Grand Remonstrance – a list of grievances presented to the king by Parliament in 1641 (© Chronicle of World History/Alamy Stock Photo)
1640–41: Political tension and retribution
In 1640–41, a united Parliament exploited the king’s weak position and reversed the unpopular policies of the previous 11 years, passed a law that all taxes needed its approval, and another that it could not be dismissed from sitting without its own consent. The political struggle was becoming fierce: Archbishop Laud, who instigated Charles’s church reforms, was imprisoned, and the king’s foremost supporter, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was condemned and executed on charges of dubious legality.
Strafford’s death had serious consequences. His firm administration of Ireland now gave way to a lack of authority, and the majority Catholic population there, fearing persecution by the English Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters, rebelled in October 1641. An army was needed to re-establish order, but Parliament did not trust the king – who was military commander-in-chief – to command it, fearing he would turn it to his own purpose, perhaps to re-establish his authority in England.
Parliament, therefore, extended debate about constitutional questions, not only military command but also about who should appoint government ministers, privy councillors and senior churchmen. The king saw all of these as his right: Parliament wanted a role.
An illustration from the 1670s showing Martin Luther, the founder of the Protestant Reformation, surrounded by other leading theologians. They are protecting the candle of Protestantism from being blown out by the cardinal, the devil and the pope (© The National Portrait Gallery, London)
An illustration from the 1670s showing Martin Luther, the founder of the Protestant Reformation, surrounded by other leading theologians. They are protecting the candle of Protestantism from being blown out by the cardinal, the devil and the pope (© The National Portrait Gallery, London)
Religion continued as a source of disagreement. Although the king was willing to return church practice to the form it had been under James I (r.1603–25), many MPs wanted more radical, Puritan reforms, including the abolition of bishops. These hard-liners pressed their attempts to limit the king’s powers, while he persisted in the line that he, as monarch, was sole defender of the Church of England and of the rule of law. Parliament narrowly agreed and published a list of grievances known as the Grand Remonstrance, which it presented to Charles in December 1641.
1642: The beginning of civil war
The king could not agree to Parliament’s demands and in January 1642 he tried and failed to arrest his leading opponents in Parliament, having accused them of treason. With Parliament in control of the London militias and the Tower of London, and fearing for his safety, Charles left London and by April had established his court in York. Both sides waged a propaganda war with broadsheets that were widely circulated. Sides and factions began to form in the regions, reflecting those at a national level, and both sides began to raise armies.
On 1 June, the Long Parliament published the Nineteen Propositions, a document that stated its demands to limit the king’s powers, transferring most into its own hands. It was too much for Charles, who considered it as subjugation: he rejected the document on 21 June. Minor fighting began in midsummer as each side competed in recruitment and started to take towns and cities into their control. A formal declaration of war took place on 22 August when the king raised his standard at Nottingham.
War had begun.
Charles I raising his standard at Nottingham in 1642 (© Courtesy of the National Army Museum, London)
Charles I raising his standard at Nottingham in 1642 (© Courtesy of the National Army Museum, London)
Which side?
Why people took different sides is a complex issue, and there were many differing motives. Political, religious and social matters were widely debated but frequently distorted by propaganda in broadsheets, most of which were partisan and inflammatory, fostering intolerance of alternative opinion, and instability in society.
For men joining the army, some did so to defend their religious freedoms and to further their political ambitions. Others had little choice due to bonds that tied them to local lords and gentlefolk – some were simply loyal. Many ordinary folk, often poor and disadvantaged, were attracted by the regular pay, food and clothing that army life provided, while a few were attracted by the prospect of adventure.
THE FIRST CIVIL WAR
1642–6
A page from Thomas Jenner’s The Military Discipline wherein is Martially Showne the Order for Drilling the Musket and Pike, published in 1642
A page from Thomas Jenner’s The Military Discipline wherein is Martially Showne the Order for Drilling the Musket and Pike, published in 1642
A pamphlet depicting a woman sending her husband to war (© Historical Picture Archive/CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images)
A pamphlet depicting a woman sending her husband to war (© Historical Picture Archive/CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images)
1642: Edgehill, the first pitched battle
All summer was taken up with recruitment. England did not have a standing army and its soldiers mainly comprised the county militias –ordinary men who trained part time and who fought only when called to, usually in defence of their county or town. While the militias resolved their allegiances, extra recruiting drives took place. At summer’s end, each side had amassed around 20,000 soldiers, most of them with little or no fighting experience.
A late 17th-century drawing by Michael Vandergucht depicting the Battle of Edgehill (© The Print Collector/Getty Images)
A late 17th-century drawing by Michael Vandergucht depicting the Battle of Edgehill (© The Print Collector/Getty Images)
The first large battle took place on 23 October. The Parliamentarian army, commanded by the Earl of Essex, met the king’s forces at Edgehill (Warwickshire) with about 13,000–14,000 on each side. The result was inconclusive, though about 1,000 soldiers lost their lives. The king’s army then marched on London but was stopped at Turnham Green (Middlesex) by Essex’s expanded force of about 24,000. Small-scale fighting occurred over the winter of 1642–3, during which the king established his headquarters at Oxford.
The front cover of a 1642 pamphlet containing first-hand accounts of the siege of Sherborne Castle. One soldier recalls seeing the army of Devonshire men approaching the castle: ‘Many of them advanced slowly and sadly, and you know the Nature of West-countrey men, who most of them holding their means for their lives, were loath to hazard their lives and lifelyhood at one adventure’ (© Courtesy of the Sherborne School Archives)
The front cover of a 1642 pamphlet containing first-hand accounts of the siege of Sherborne Castle. One soldier recalls seeing the army of Devonshire men approaching the castle: ‘Many of them advanced slowly and sadly, and you know the Nature of West-countrey men, who most of them holding their means for their lives, were loath to hazard their lives and lifelyhood at one adventure’ (© Courtesy of the Sherborne School Archives)
1643: The conflict grows
Early in the year, at half-hearted peace talks, Parliament presented Charles I with the Oxford Propositions – similar to the Nineteen Propositions – which he rejected. Both sides secured territory in the kingdom by establishing garrisons in towns, ports and strategic locations, from which they could gather and control supplies.
Despite some areas of uncertain or divided allegiance, by midsummer a nationwide pattern was clear. The areas controlled by the opposing sides were about equal but that of Parliament commanded far better resources.
Parliament controlled most major ports, including London, Hull, Boston, Exeter, Portsmouth, Plymouth and Milford Haven. It also held the largest arsenals – in London, Hull and Portsmouth – and controlled the Navy. It held the southern, south-eastern and eastern parts of England, and a large chunk of the Midlands.
The king, meanwhile, held all northern England including the port of Newcastle, the rest of the Midlands, all of Wales except Pembrokeshire, and Cornwall.
Fighting was widespread, mainly by smaller forces in regional areas, with about 150,000 combatants in all. The results were Royalist gains in the North, the Midlands and the South, with Parliament pushed into its south-eastern bases. In the South West, there were Royalist victories at Braddock Down (Cornwall), Sourton Down (Devon), Stratton (Cornwall) and Roundway Down (Wiltshire), and they took control of Devon, Dorset, Somerset, part of Gloucestershire, Wiltshire and western Hampshire, and the important port of Bristol.
The document surrendering Old Wardour Castle in Wiltshire to Sir Edward Hungerford, signed by Lady Blanche Arundell. Lady Arundell held the castle for the Royalists for six days with only 25 men, before being forced to capitulate
The document surrendering Old Wardour Castle in Wiltshire to Sir Edward Hungerford, signed by Lady Blanche Arundell. Lady Arundell held the castle for the Royalists for six days with only 25 men, before being forced to capitulate
The Royalist attempt to take Gloucester was foiled by the approach of a large Parliamentary army under the Earl of Essex. After some manoeuvring, the king’s army tried unsuccessfully to prevent Essex returning to London in the largest confrontation of 1643, the inconclusive First Battle of Newbury, with around 30,000 men involved.
In northern England, there were Royalist gains by William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, who took York and most of Yorkshire, including victory in battle at Adwalton Moor, where about 15,000 troops took part. In Lincolnshire, territorial gains ebbed and flowed but at the end of the campaigning season it was controlled mainly by the king. As the winter of 1643–4 set in, the king held two-thirds of England and Wales, and appeared to be winning.
1644: The tide begins to turn
Late in 1643 the king reached an agreement with the Irish Catholics to end the Irish Rebellion. Irish troops now joined the Royalists, fighting in north Wales and Cheshire in 1644. The king’s use of Catholic troops proved to be counter-productive, as it gave rise to the idea of an Irish 'invasion' and Charles was further smeared with anti-Catholic propaganda.
The Scottish army and Parliamentarians unite against their old foe, Charles I
The Scottish army and Parliamentarians unite against their old foe, Charles I
Equally seriously, in 1643 Parliament allied with the Scottish Covenanters, who had no wish to see Catholic influence in England. As a result, in January 1644, a 22,000-strong Scottish army crossed the border to help Parliament, heading for York to join a Parliamentarian army. To counter this large force, a Royalist army under Prince Rupert hurried to Yorkshire.
The two armies clashed at Marston Moor, just east of York, on 2 July, in the largest battle of the first Civil War. Parliament’s 28,000 soldiers routed the smaller Royalist force of about 18,000 in a decisive victory that caused the collapse of the Royalist cause in the North. Elsewhere, the Royalists did better, defeating the Earl of Essex at Lostwithiel (Cornwall), while the king eluded a much larger Parliamentarian army at the Second Battle of Newbury. In Scotland, a Royalist force under the Marquess of Montrose was making progress against the Covenanters.
Nunney Castle in Somerset drawn by one of its Royalist officers in 1644, when it was a Royalist stronghold in the West Country (© The British Library 17062, f46v DET)
Nunney Castle in Somerset drawn by one of its Royalist officers in 1644, when it was a Royalist stronghold in the West Country (© The British Library 17062, f46v DET)
By the end of 1644, the North belonged to Parliament, apart from a few isolated Royalist outposts. The king lost ground in the Midlands too, but he held the important Royalist base at Newark, as well as much of the West and Wales.
1645–6: Parliament is victorious
Early in 1645, Parliament presented the king with the Uxbridge Propositions, another list of proposals to bring about peace. The proposals would have ended the king’s command of the armed forces, given Parliament responsibility for the education of his children, introduced Scottish-style Presbyterian religion to England, and obliged the king to sign the Covenant. It was firmly rejected.
Parliament’s war effort was helped by the professionalisation of its army. It gradually removed aristocratic commanders and replaced them with trained soldiers and, at the same time, created a permanent, professional New Model Army of 22,000 men under Thomas Fairfax.
Among the senior commanders of the new army was Oliver Cromwell. Through his military prowess and political acumen, Cromwell would soon become the leading figure of the Parliamentarian cause.
Oliver Cromwell rose to prominence as a military commander during the first Civil War, when he earned the nickname ‘Old Ironsides’ (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
Oliver Cromwell rose to prominence as a military commander during the first Civil War, when he earned the nickname ‘Old Ironsides’ (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
The decisive battle of the war took place on 14 June when two armies – 15,000 under Fairfax and 9,000–10,000 under the king – fought at Naseby in Northamptonshire, resulting in a decisive victory for Parliament. For the remainder of 1645 and early 1646, the Parliamentarian army moved into the shrinking Royalist areas, defeating their remaining forces in the West and South West.
An illustration from 1702 depicting the armies at the Battle of Naseby (© Courtesy of the National Army Museum, London)
An illustration from 1702 depicting the armies at the Battle of Naseby (© Courtesy of the National Army Museum, London)
On 10 March 1646, the Royalist army in the West, under Sir Ralph Hopton, surrendered at Truro (Cornwall). Most of Wales and the Marches fell without significant action and on 21 March the only remaining Royalist field army was defeated at Stow-on-the-Wold (Gloucestershire). The king left Oxford and surrendered to the Scottish army on 5 May at Newark. The last few Royalist strongholds were ordered to surrender but a few fought on until late summer.
A stained glass window in Farndon, Cheshire, commemorating Royalist soldiers who defended nearby Beeston Castle during a year-long siege. When the victorious Parliamentarians entered the castle in November 1645, they found that ‘theire was neither meate, Ale nor Beere found in the Castle, save only a peece of Turkey pye, Twoe Bisketts, a lyve Peacock and a peahen’
A stained glass window in Farndon, Cheshire, commemorating Royalist soldiers who defended nearby Beeston Castle during a year-long siege. When the victorious Parliamentarians entered the castle in November 1645, they found that ‘theire was neither meate, Ale nor Beere found in the Castle, save only a peece of Turkey pye, Twoe Bisketts, a lyve Peacock and a peahen’
TWO WARS AND AN EXECUTION
1646–51
1646–8: Political manoeuvres
Though the fighting had ended, the search for a political and religious settlement dragged on through 1646–8. The king played for time, refusing several proposals and seeking to exploit divisions on the Parliamentarian side. The Parliamentarians disagreed among themselves about how to reform the monarchy, the extent of religious freedoms and what to do with the New Model Army. Some feared the influence of the New Model Army, which had a wide variety of political groups with differing aims and loyalties, and its own list of demands over religious practice, the political settlement, arrears of pay, pensions for bereaved families, and legal indemnity for wartime conduct.
A mid-17th-century etching of John Lilburne, who was instrumental in writing the 1648 manifesto An Agreement of the People which demanded freedom of religion and the equality of all people before the law. The manifesto was associated with a radical political group known as the Levellers, widely supported in the New Model Army (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
A mid-17th-century etching of John Lilburne, who was instrumental in writing the 1648 manifesto An Agreement of the People which demanded freedom of religion and the equality of all people before the law. The manifesto was associated with a radical political group known as the Levellers, widely supported in the New Model Army (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
Another important interest came from the Scots, who had helped turn the war in Parliament’s favour. They were agreeable to a constitutional monarchy but sought a Scottish-style religious settlement, which was opposed by those in England who rejected the idea of a single state church.
Amidst the political in-fighting in the winter of 1647–8, the king saw his chance. From the Isle of Wight, where he was being held prisoner at Carisbrooke Castle, Charles concluded a peace treaty with the Scots, promising a favourable religious settlement in England in return for their military support.
A political ballad printed in 1646 ( © Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
A political ballad printed in 1646 ( © Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
A woodcut illustration of Charles I trying to regain his authority from Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight, where he was a prisoner in 1647–8 (© Universal History Archive/Getty Images)
A woodcut illustration of Charles I trying to regain his authority from Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight, where he was a prisoner in 1647–8 (© Universal History Archive/Getty Images)
1648: The second Civil War
Royalist uprisings began in the spring and summer of 1648, many of them originating in discontent over taxes, the devastation of war and disillusionment with Parliament, while some were simply still loyal to the king. There was a Naval Revolt in the Downs, offshore from Deal (Kent), and an uprising in north Kent. Fairfax acted swiftly with 7,000 soldiers of the New Model Army, crushing the Kentish Royalists at Maidstone on 1–2 June.
Some Kentish Royalists escaped to Colchester (Essex) where the town was fortified against a Parliamentarian siege that lasted until late August. Meanwhile, the Naval Revolt spread to the land, also lasting into August, with Royalists occupying Dover, Deal, Walmer and Sandown castles, all of which were eventually recaptured after serious fighting and sieges.
In the North, Oliver Cromwell took an army of 8,000 into south Wales as far as Pembroke to quell a revolt there, then marched rapidly north to engage a Scottish army of 10,000, which he defeated at Preston in mid-August.
The events of 1648 marked the end of Parliamentarian negotiation. The Army seized power, the leaders of the uprisings were executed, and the more radical MPs expelled the moderates from Parliament in what became known as Pride’s Purge.
This left a much smaller body, the Rump Parliament, composed of hard-liners implacably opposed to the king.
A copy of a pro-Royalist playing card from a pack called the ‘Knavery of the Rump’, produced in 1679. The Rump Parliament is shown as a putrid leg of meat, which needs salting to disguise its rotten taste
A copy of a pro-Royalist playing card from a pack called the ‘Knavery of the Rump’, produced in 1679. The Rump Parliament is shown as a putrid leg of meat, which needs salting to disguise its rotten taste
1649: The unthinkable act
The Rump Parliament set up a high court and the king was put on trial in Westminster Hall. He was found guilty of attempting to ‘uphold in himself an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people’.
The court did the unthinkable and condemned the king to death. He was beheaded in Whitehall on 30 January 1649.
A 1649 etching depicting Charles I’s execution. Images of the execution, suppressed in England, circulated widely in continental Europe. This one was printed in Germany (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
A 1649 etching depicting Charles I’s execution. Images of the execution, suppressed in England, circulated widely in continental Europe. This one was printed in Germany (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
1649–51: The third Civil War
The execution of Charles I was opposed by the Scots Parliament, which entered negotiations with the king’s son, Prince Charles. He was asked to agree to Presbyterian religion in England, and to sign the Covenant. Charles needed an army because Parliament had launched a new campaign in Ireland with Cromwell in command late in 1649, and all Royalist military resources were committed there. Cromwell’s success in Ireland induced Prince Charles to accept the Covenant and he arrived in Scotland in June 1650 (but was not crowned as king until 1 January 1651).
With Scotland now hostile, the English Parliament sent an army north with Cromwell in command. Initially, the Scots commander, Alexander Leslie, conducted a canny campaign of refusing pitched battle, allowing lack of supplies and disease to deplete the English force and to cause its retreat. However, when Leslie finally offered battle at Dunbar on 3 September 1650, Cromwell defeated him. After another defeat at Inverkeithing on 20 July 1651, Charles went south and assembled a combined army at Worcester.
At Worcester, a huge Parliamentarian army gathered from all over England to confront what was considered as a Scottish invasion – some 32,000 English soldiers confronted Charles’s 16,000. It was another decisive victory for Cromwell and Parliament, and though Charles escaped, the third Civil War was at an end.
Prince Charles fled the Battle of Worcester and hid in an oak tree at Boscobel House in Shropshire, before escaping to France disguised as the servant of a local gentlewoman, Jane Lane. Lane and Charles are depicted here on horseback (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
Prince Charles fled the Battle of Worcester and hid in an oak tree at Boscobel House in Shropshire, before escaping to France disguised as the servant of a local gentlewoman, Jane Lane. Lane and Charles are depicted here on horseback (© National Portrait Gallery, London)
The impact of the wars
The English Civil Wars were hard-fought, bloody struggles that divided society at every level, splitting individual families, villages, towns and counties across the kingdom. Although there were several large military campaigns and many medium to large battles, the war was also fought locally, in thousands of small skirmishes and sieges on small castles, towns and manor houses. People were bitterly divided, and fighting became personal and unrestrained. Countless atrocities were inflicted by soldiers, intent on the control of territory and resources to further their wider aims.
The war brought wounding, death, psychological damage, plundering and destruction on a huge scale in many areas of England. Towns and countryside were stripped of what they could supply by armies on the move or to support local garrisons. Livelihoods were lost and gained. Law and order broke down, so acts of violence and destruction went unpunished. Some groups were victimised, notably Catholics, who were vilified by the Parliamentarian side. Communities were further split by the activities of spies and informers.
It is estimated that as many as one in four adult men, from a total population of about 4.5 million people, took up arms and up to 200,000 civilians (men, women and children) and soldiers lost their lives from fighting and diseases spread by moving armies – 4.5% of the population. That was as great a loss, proportionally, as during the First World War (1914–18).
AFTERMATH AND LEGACY
1649–60: The Commonwealth of England
The period between 1649 and 1660 is often called the Interregnum, when no monarch ruled.
On 19 May 1649, the Rump Parliament created the Commonwealth of England. The monarchy and Privy Council were abolished and replaced by Parliament and a Council of State, the latter elected each year. However, in 1653, after four years of deliberations, England’s new leaders had not agreed on a satisfactory constitution for how the country was to be governed. In frustration and with the backing of the Army, Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament and organised the creation of a National Assembly. Often called the Barebones Parliament, it met for the first time on 4 July 1653, but factional in-fighting and widely differing opinions meant it achieved nothing.
At this point, backed by the Army, Cromwell dismissed Parliament and introduced a written constitution known as the Instrument of Government. At the head of government was a Lord Protector –Cromwell himself. From then on, England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were ruled with one government, known as the Protectorate. Three parliaments sat during the Protectorate but in between their sittings, Cromwell, his Council of State and the Army ruled.
Oliver Cromwell depicted as Lord Protector in 1653 (© The Print Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images)
Oliver Cromwell depicted as Lord Protector in 1653 (© The Print Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images)
The government of the Protectorate practised religious toleration of all Protestant sects, but persecuted Catholics, and abolished bishops. It was morally radical along Puritan lines, creating restrictions on public behaviour and events. Theatres were closed, bearbaiting and sports were banned, plain clothing was encouraged, and Christmas celebrations – beyond the religious – were outlawed.
When Cromwell died in 1658, most people had had enough of the Protectorate. Although his son Richard became Lord Protector for a while, he was unable to control the Army or Parliament, and was quietly and bloodlessly removed from power.
1660: The return of a king
In May 1659, Parliament formed a Committee of Safety which led in turn to a new Council of State. But there was a power vacuum, into which stepped General George Monck, the commander of English forces in Scotland and a Royalist sympathiser. Monck allowed the moderate Presbyterian MPs removed by Pride’s Purge in 1648 to return to Parliament in February 1660.
Realising the time was right, in April 1660 Prince Charles, in exile, proclaimed the Declaration of Breda, which promised a pardon for all crimes committed during the Civil War and after to those who recognised him as king. In May, Parliament declared that Charles was the lawful successor to Charles I and began to form legislation that would bring the monarchy back. By 29 May, Charles II was in London – a king had returned.
Charles II was crowned in Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661, restoring the monarchy to England after 11 years of Commonwealth rule (© Fine Art Images/Heritage Images via Getty Images)
Charles II was crowned in Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661, restoring the monarchy to England after 11 years of Commonwealth rule (© Fine Art Images/Heritage Images via Getty Images)
The legacy
The English Civil Wars and the Interregnum brought about the end of the monarchy, but only for 11 years. The motivations of the Parliamentarian winners were varied, and it proved impossible for them to reconcile their political, religious and social desires and agree a new constitution for government. Frustration led to a military-backed oligarchy taking over, held together largely by the will and authority of one man: Oliver Cromwell.
With its strict moral code and political in-fighting, the new government was unable to satisfy the people at large that it was a better alternative to a monarch. The failure of the regime is evident in the way it crumbled after Cromwell’s death and the ease with which a king was restored.
An allegorical engraving printed in 1683 shows the ‘ship of state’ in stormy waters with the king being thrown overboard, while Westminster stands firm (© Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
An allegorical engraving printed in 1683 shows the ‘ship of state’ in stormy waters with the king being thrown overboard, while Westminster stands firm (© Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
However, there was a political legacy. The reigns of Charles II (1660–85) and especially of James II (1685–8) witnessed continuing tension between the monarch and Parliament. James II attempted to exercise absolute authority and met with Parliamentarian opposition. He was deposed in 1688 and the new joint monarchs, William III and Mary, agreed to Parliament’s Bill of Rights in 1689, a series of measures that ensured the monarch could not suspend laws, raise taxes, make royal appointments, or maintain a peacetime army without Parliament’s permission.
These measures were the real beginning of the constitutional monarchy that we know today, in which Parliament functions as the true seat of power, but they had their roots in the Civil Wars of 1642–51.
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